November 19, 2025
What is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Learning Theory?
from The TeachThought staff
What did Vygotsky say about learning?
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory describes learning as a fundamentally social process and locates the origins of human intelligence in cultural activity. A central theme of this framework is that social interaction plays a central role in cognitive development: knowledge is first constructed between people and later internalized by the individual (Vygotsky, 1978).
Also known as Sociohistorical Theory, Vygotsky’s model emphasizes how cultural context, shared activities, and especially language shape the development of higher mental functions. Learning and development are inseparable from the social and cultural environment in which individuals participate.
Vygotsky argued that learning takes place on two levels – initially through interaction with others and then in the internal psychological processes of the learner. As he explained: “Each function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first at the social level and later at the individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then within the child (intrapsychological)… All higher functions arise as actual relationships between individuals.” (Vygotsky, 1978).
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Vygotsky, LS (1978). The mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
| Concept | A brief explanation | Example of a classroom |
|---|---|---|
| Zone of proximal development | The space between what a learner can do on their own and what they can do with guidance. | The student solves multi-step math problems only after the teacher models the first step. |
| Social interaction | Learning develops through guided interaction with more knowledgeable others. | Peers discuss a scientific concept and clarify it for each other using everyday language. |
| Cultural tools and mediation | Language, symbols, and cultural practices shape thinking and problem solving. | The teacher models how to read the graph, and the student later uses the same conventions independently. |
| Scaffolding | Temporary learning support that fades as the learner gains mastery. | Students begin with sentence starters, but later write independently as the supports fade. |
| Private speech | Self-directed speech that is internalized and directed toward problem solving. | A child whispers instructions to himself while putting together a puzzle. |
Let us examine the principles of his learning theory.
Key Concepts of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development “is the distance between the actual level of development, determined by independent problem solving, and the level of potential development, determined by problem solving under the guidance of an adult or in cooperation with more capable peers.” This idea is consistent with the broader perspectives on cognition described in “Learning theories for teachers.”
Through collaborative interactions, a more qualified person, such as a teacher or peer, can provide support to build the learner’s understanding and skills. This emphasis on directed learning is similar to the principles discussed in Principles of social learning theory.
This “zone” is a level of understanding or ability to use a skill where the learner is able, in terms of knowledge or skill, to grasp or apply the idea, but only with the support of a more knowledgeable Other (Briner, 1999).
Example: A student can solve multi-step math problems only when the teacher models the first step; over time, the student learns the process and solves similar problems independently. Another example is a reader who can summarize a text when guided by prompts (“What happened first?”) but not alone.
This “MKO” can be another student, parent, teacher, etc. – anyone with a level of understanding or skill that enables the student to master knowledge or skill that could not otherwise be mastered. Strategies that support work in this zone of proximal development include modeling, direct instruction, cooperative learning (closely related to the distinctions discussed in The difference between constructivism and constructivismon A concept achievement modelblended learning, etc.
2. Social interaction
Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions in cognitive development. He believed that learning occurs through interaction with others, especially more knowledgeable individuals. Language plays a central role in these interactions as it enables communication, transmission of knowledge and the development of higher mental processes. These ideas relate to the learner-centred approach described in constructivism (see above).
Example: A student learning a new scientific concept becomes more competent after discussing it with a peer who explains it in everyday language. Similarly, a teacher-led think-aloud during a reading activity models how to analyze a text by helping students internalize the reasoning process.
Albert Bandura’s social learning theory states that “learning occurs through vicarious reinforcement – observing behavior and its consequences (which have social ramifications)”. Vygotsky shares this idea.
3. Cultural means and mediation
Vygotsky argued that cultural tools, including language, symbols, artifacts, and social practices, mediate learning and development. These tools are products of a particular culture and are used by people to think, communicate and solve problems. Through cultural tools, individuals internalize and construct knowledge, transforming their cognitive processes. This broader perspective is developed in Learning theories for teachers.
Each function in the child’s cultural development manifests itself twice: first at the social level, and later at the individual level (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57).
Example: A student initially learns how to interpret a graph by watching a teacher model how to read axes and identify patterns; later the student uses these same conventions independently. Another example is a child using teacher-provided sentence frames (“I predict that…”) before eventually generating his own academic language.
4. Scaffolding
Scaffolding is any help, assistance or support provided by a more competent person (eg a teacher) to facilitate the learner’s understanding and skill development. Scaffolding is implemented by gradually adjusting the level of support according to the needs of the learner and transferring responsibility to the learner as his competence increases. These ideas are consistent with the principles of adult learning described in Andragogy
Example: A teacher initially solves a writing prompt with students, then provides lead sentences, and eventually removes prompts as students gain confidence. Another example is using guiding questions (“What could you try next?”) during problem solving before stepping back to allow the learner to take full control.
Scaffolding and similar ideas such as the gradual release of responsibility model: show me, help me, let me also support the types of thinking described in Levels of Integration for Critical Thinking.
5. Personal speech and self-regulation
In his study (see also Question Types) Vygotsky noticed that young children often engage in private speech, talking to themselves while doing activities.
He believed that private speech was important for self-regulation and cognitive development—a truth clear to parents and teachers, but important here as a data point observed by a neutral researcher. Over time, this private speech is internalized and transformed into inner speech that is used for self-direction and problem-solving.
Example: A child putting together a puzzle might whisper, “This piece goes here… no, try in the corner,” using speech to guide their actions before eventually solving the puzzles silently. Another example is a student who verbalizes the steps of a math problem (“First multiply . . . then add . . . “) before learning to manage those steps internally.
References
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Vygotsky, LS (1978).
The mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. -
Bandura, A. (1977).
Social learning theory.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. -
Knowles, MS (1980).
The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy.
New York, NY: Cambridge Books.
