Wherever we are, we’d all like to think that our classrooms are “intellectually active” places. Progressive learning environments. Highly effective and conducive to student-centered learning.
The reality is that there is no one-size-fits-all answer because teaching and learning are uncomfortable to think of as separate events or separate ‘things’.
So we’ve put together a look at the characteristics of a highly effective classroom through the idea of conditions. These can act as a sort of yardstick against which to measure your own – see if you spot a pattern.
Read more below.
frame
A condition-based model for high-performance learning environments
A research-based template for diagnosing learning environments and guiding the design of lessons, units, and programs in K-12 settings.
Summary
Research on learning suggests that effective classrooms are shaped less by isolated strategies and more by the conditions in which learning occurs. This model identifies five interacting conditions –clarity, a challenge, support, agencyand reflection— that limit or enable the quality, depth and longevity of learning.
Definition
What does “Terms” mean in this model
A condition is a factor that enables or limits the quality, depth, and durability of learning, regardless of the strategies or programs used.
Conditions are not activities or techniques. They shape what is possible. When conditioning is weak or incorrect, learning is limited, even when the instruction appears strong.
| Condition | Operational importance (what it should make possible) |
|---|---|
| Clarity
Direction |
A shared understanding of goals and success criteria so that learners can regulate effort and interpret feedback. |
| A challenge
Cognitive search |
A cognitive quest that requires reasoning and productive struggle, not mere completion. |
| maintenance
Persistence |
Resilience to adversity through feedback, scaffolding, and a psychologically safe environment. |
| agency
Ownership |
Ownership and motivation through meaningful impact on learning. |
| Reflection
Transfer |
Transfer, metacognition, and sustained understanding beyond a single task. |
Conditions Matrix: Challenge × Support
The effectiveness of learning does not depend only on challenge or support, but on how they interact.
Taking it as a pattern: improvement comes from shifting conditions to the upper right quadrant, not from increasing a single factor in isolation.
Clarity
Direction
What is clarity
Clarity is a shared understanding of the purpose and success of learning: what is being learned, why it matters, and what quality looks like. In an effective environment, clarity is not something the teacher possesses, it is something learners can articulate, use, and act upon.
Why clarity matters (mechanism)
Clarity functions as a directional constraint. When goals and success criteria are clear, learners are better able to regulate their efforts, interpret feedback, and persevere through challenges.
Indicators
- Students can explain the learning objective in their own words.
- Learners can describe what quality work looks like before completing the task.
- Questions focus on improvement and meaning, not point values.
- Learners use criteria to evaluate work with reasonable accuracy.
Failure modes
- Students ask mostly procedural questions (eg grades, points, steps).
- Completion is confused with understanding.
- Feedback is ignored or treated as arbitrary.
- Students rely on teacher approval rather than internal criteria.
Research Anchors: Black & Williams (1998); Hattie (2009)
A challenge
Cognitive search
What a challenge it is
A challenge is the level of cognitive demand required to progress in learning. It reflects how much reasoning, problem solving, and thinking a task requires, not how busy or difficult it seems.
Why Challenge Matters (Mechanism)
Challenge functions as a cognitive constraint. Tasks that are too simple lead to little growth; tasks that exceed available support increase avoidance. Learning is reinforced through productive struggle calibrated to readiness.
Indicators
- Tasks require explanation, justification or problem solving.
- Students struggle with ideas, not just procedures.
- Mistakes are treated as part of learning and are reviewed.
- It takes time to think, not just finish.
Failure modes
- The work emphasizes recall, formatting, or compliance.
- Students finish quickly with minimal understanding.
- Rigor is confused with workload rather than thinking.
- Engagement may be high, but learning plateaus.
Research Anchors: Vygotsky (1978); Bransford et al. (2000)
maintenance
Persistence
What is support
maintenance includes scaffolding and the emotional states that enable learners to persevere through adversity. Maintenance does not remove rigor; maintain it through feedback, revision and psychological safety.
Why support matters (mechanism)
Support functions as a sustainability constraint. When learners experience challenge without support, effort becomes avoidance. When there is support, learners are more likely to take risks, rethink their thinking and persevere.
Indicators
- Feedback is timely, specific and actionable.
- Revision is expected, not required.
- Errors are treated as information, not as an error.
- Students seek help without stigma.
Failure modes
- Feedback arrives too late to affect learning.
- Mistakes are punished, not checked.
- Students are exempted in case of difficulties.
- Excessive scaffolding removes cognitive demand.
Research Anchors: Black & Williams (1998); Darling-Hammond et al. (2020)
agency
Ownership
What is the agency
agency is the learner’s sense of ownership and influence over learning. Agency is not unlimited choice; it is meaningful participation within purposeful constraints.
Why agency matters (mechanism)
Agency functions as a motivational constraint. Learners persevere and engage more deeply when they experience autonomy, competence, and purpose. Without representation, clarity and challenge often lead to compliance rather than investment.
Indicators
- Students ask substantive questions that shape learning.
- Learners make meaningful decisions about a process or product.
- Curiosity and initiative are seen over time.
- Students take responsibility for improvement.
Failure modes
- Students wait for instructions instead of thinking independently.
- Choice exists only on a surface level.
- Engagement depends on extrinsic rewards.
- Learning feels procedural rather than purposeful.
Research Anchors: Deci and Ryan (2000)
Reflection
Transfer
What is reflection
Reflection refers to opportunities for learners to revisit ideas, explore thinking and connect learning across contexts. Reflection transforms activity into learning and increases transfer beyond a single task.
Why reflection matters (mechanism)
The reflection functions as a transfer constraint. Without it, learning remains task-bound and short-lived. Learners improve when they analyze errors, revise work, and articulate understanding.
Indicators
- Students revise work based on feedback.
- Students explain how their thinking has changed.
- Connections are made between tasks and contexts.
- Prior learning is deliberately revisited.
Failure modes
- The same mistakes are repeated in the tasks.
- Feedback does not lead to improvement.
- Learning fades quickly after assessment.
- Transfer is rare and random.
Research Anchors: Bransford et al. (2000)
References
- Black, P. & Williams, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education5 (1), 7-74.
- Bransford, JD, Brown, AL, & Cocking, RR (Eds.). (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and Schooling. National Academy Press.
- Darling-Hammond, L., Fluke, L., Cook-Harvey, K., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2020). Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development. Applied Developmental Science24 (2), 97-140.
- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuit: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. A psychological study11 (4), 227-268.
- Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 achievement-related meta-analyses. Routledge.
- Vygotsky, LS (1978). The mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
You can also find a related graphic we created in 2015 below for a few additional thoughts that aren’t strictly based on research.
